“War's tragedy is that it uses man's best to do man's worst.”
—Harry Emerson Fosdick, 1946
I. Abstract
Disaster is a catalyst for change. We are motivated by danger, and innovation is often our best response to impending threats. Ancient Egyptian societies created the first irrigation systems to combat constant flooding, the Chinese invented gunpowder to battle their enemies, and the atomic bomb was later developed by the USA out of fear that German scientists were working on similar projects [1]. War is in itself a driving force of change, and as human societies slowly evolved, so did the way we fight our battles. In particular, World War I (WWI) was a conflict that in many ways embodied the powerful changes of its time . Often considered the first “modern war” of human history, the pre- and post-war conditions of WWI generated a sense of urgency amongst scientific communities that led to numerous technological advancements, oftentimes mirrored by the extent of human suffering.
II. Introduction
The Great War officially began on July 28th, 1914 when the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were assassinated by Serbian nationalist group, The Black Hand. Although the most significant and direct cause of WWI is often attributed to the July Crisis, which was initiated by the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, and the subsequent failure to diplomatically de-escalate the fallout, war had been brewing in the background of European affairs for more than half a century.
Ever since the industrial revolution rocked Europe in the early 1800s, decades of rapid industrial growth led to an increased need for states to find new markets and sources of raw materials, thus escalating the competitive tension between European nations. The need for new markets and materials led nations to seek out colonies (as in the Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference in 1885), while the competitive tension gave rise to militarism (reflected by the Anglo-German arms race and the establishment of compulsory conscription in multiple countries) [2]. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian war in which they lost the Alsace-Lorraine, Germany attempted to alienate France through a series of complicated alliances such as the Three-Emperors League (1873) with Austria-Hungary and Russia, the Dual Alliance (1894) with just Austria-Hungary, and finally the famous Triple Entente and Triple Alliance during WWI itself [3].
WWI was, however, in many ways a turning point for previously sidelined communities. Women’s rights were furthered dramatically, and technology improved in leaps and bounds. While certain scientific advancements accelerated the pace of modern industrialization and led to more interest in the scientific community, others were responsible for the enormous casualties of the war. This paper will analyze the role of new or emerging forms of technology on the outcome of WWI as well as the human and societal consequences of such advancements, returning once again to the question: do the fruits of our changes really outweigh the costs of our wars?
III. The Trenches: Artillery, Tanks, and the Machine Gun
WWI introduced the world to a grueling new form of war known as “trench warfare,” where both sides dug long lines of “trenches” that offered some protection from the heavy gunfire and artillery. Artillery weaponry was greatly improved upon in WWI, and it was responsible for the most deaths over the course of the war—massive guns were able to launch vast quantities of explosive shells across “No Man’s Land” and into enemy territory, and soldiers quickly developed better maneuverability and methods of concentrating fire.
Another prominent weapon throughout the war was the machine gun, which was used for mass killings with previously unfathomable efficiency. The original model for the machine gun was developed by US national Hiram Maxim prior to the war and was quickly adopted by all modernized nations by the beginning of WWI. The machine gun was primarily used to maintain a brutal stalemate through long term firing; while the original Maxim Gun could only fire up to 600 rounds per minute, by the end of the war, continued advancements allowed a machine gun to fire up to 1,200 rounds per minute over a distance of 1,000 meters [4]. The Maxim gun, usually operated by a crew of 4-6 men, eventually evolved into more portable variations like the Lewis gun or Small Vickers that could be carried by infantry or even mounted on aircrafts and shot from above.
Tanks were also introduced during WWI as powerhouses of warfare. The first tanks were used by the British at the Somme in 1916, where they were lauded for their ability to withstand machine gun fire and therefore cross longer distances. Early tanks regularly broke down mid-battle and were used instead as armored shelters for moving infantry. Eventually, by 1918, the use of tanks with coordinated air support and infantry was so effective that it continued throughout WWII.
IV. Chemical Warfare: Poison Gas
Chemical weapons, primarily different types of poisonous gas, was another form of warfare that was rarely used prior to WWI. Poisonous gas, despite being outlawed, was first used by the Germans on the Eastern Front and can be separated into three categories: tearing agents, asphyxiants, and blistering agents. The first gas used by the Germans in the Battle of Bolimov (1915) was a tearing agent, and the gas was relatively ineffective, as it only served to briefly stall and irritate the advancing Russian army [5]. Shortly after in the Battle of Ypres (1915), the German army began to use chlorine gas as an effective chemical weapon. This gas worked to irritate the eyes, corrode the lungs, and eventually cause death by asphyxiation. Later on, scientists came up with the idea of mixing chlorine gas with phosgene, creating a deadlier chemical weapon that was harder to detect. By mixing the two, scientists effectively combined the lethalness of phosgene with the controllability of chlorine [6]. Additionally, other modifications also included the use of shells to contain the gas instead of canisters, as they were much quicker and didn’t blow back into the faces of attackers.
V. Communications: Coordination and Propaganda
Communications proved to be a heavy obstacle on the front lines of WWI. Telephones were regularly used by both sides but were extremely unreliable as wires were often cut within minutes of battle. Wireless sets were also rarely used, as messages were easily intercepted by the opposing side. As a result, smaller armies tended to use runners or trench runners to carry messages, while larger armies employed an assortment of options, including sounds, flags and banners, and heliographs. Each of these options, however, presented their own difficulties—the noise of a battlefield often covered the sounds of bells and other signaling devices, semaphore flags were used by both sides but were rendered ineffective if vision was impaired, and heliographs only worked in daylight and required that both sides remain within a line of sight [7]. In fact, the most reliable method of communication on the front lines became carrier pigeons. It is said that the British owned over 22,000 pigeons and only around 2% failed to return [8].
On the Home Front, propaganda spread widely as newspapers around the world, such as in the US, UK, and even Latin America, printed stories of the “Angry German.” Furthermore, new forms of media such as the cinema were also used for the first time to promote the war effort.
VI. Naval Warfare: The Arms Race, Blockade, and the Battle of Jutland
In the late 19th century, Britain had the largest navy based on the “Two-Power” standard—the belief that the power of its navy must be more powerful than the powers of the second and third strongest navies combined. However, when the German Kaiser Wilhem II began to expand German power by building up its navy as well, Britain felt threatened, and competitive tension between the two nations intensified into what would be known as the Naval Arms Race. The primary focus of this arms race was to construct dreadnoughts, a new class of battleship that was, at the time, virtually undefeatable. The Arms Race eventually came to an end in 1914 with Britain totaling 29 dreadnoughts and Germany with 17 [9].
Following the arms race in 1914 came the Naval Blockade, as Great Britain attempted to close off Germany’s access to foreign goods. Being an economy that relied mostly on imports, the German population suffered from enormous food shortages and other related internal disorder, it is estimated that 763,000 German civilians starved to death within this period [10].
Despite the fierce competition in the arms race, however, naval warfare was overall ineffective in wartime, with the massive fleets only clashing once at the Battle of Jutland. In May 1916, British codebreakers decrypted a German cipher giving notice of a larger advance into the North Sea, and the two fleets fought in what would then be the largest naval battle in history. In the end, the Germans chose to retreat despite managing to inflict more damage.
VII. Air Warfare: Reconnaissance, Inclusion, and WWII
Finally, aircrafts were also used for the first time by armies in WWI. In earlier stages, commanders considered airplanes to have little value in war except for reconnaissance missions; however, over the course of the war, they slowly evolved to handle more tasks. In general, aircrafts were categorized as reconnaissance (spying and taking photos of enemy troop movements), fighters (air-to-air combat as well as supporting infantry or harassing enemy reconnaissance attempts), and bombers (targeting enemy railroads and factories). Advancements in air warfare included the invention of interrupter gear, through which machine guns were attached to planes and fired through propellers. In 1915, the Germans also began using Zeppelins for strategic bombings; the superiority of the Zeppelins caused the British army to quickly improve on their own airships by 1916 in an effort to combat enemy Zeppelins [11].
Interestingly, airplanes were also used for propaganda purposes, as aircrafts and pilots, such as the “Red Baron,” were sensationalized to promote the war effort on the Home Front. The air force also proved to be the most inclusive amongst the navy and land troops—women pilots were not uncommon, and many would continue to make an impact in WWII.
VIII. Conclusion
Ultimately, World War I jump-started an age of scientific creativity that would be fueled by fear, anger, and curiosity. All the advancements mentioned above are ethical dilemmas in themselves—are advancements in wartime technology designed to better kill or better protect (and are the two really that different)? What are the ethical limitations of chemical weapons that could result in lasting physical and psychological damage? Should governments utilize tactics such as naval blockades that are effective in helping them win the war but at the cost of countless civilian lives? Does the potential of a new age justify the sacrifice of the previous age?
American Minister Harry Emerson Fosdick once commented in his book, On Being Fit to Live With: “War's tragedy is that it uses man's best to do man's worst” [12]. Modern technology not only changed the landscapes of war, but also redesigned the framework upon which we’ve built our peace. Objectively speaking, war in itself was never really the catalyst for change, it was only the situational embodiment of the transition to a new age with reforms that were long overdue. While the lessons we learn from our wars certainly involve the countless advancements and innovations conceived during them, the message that we’ve most consistently received is also the one that is often persistently ignored—change for the better, not for the bloodier.
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